ORDER CARNIVORA - Meat Eaters  

Families of this order include the dogs, bears, seals, walrus, raccoon, weasels, civets, hyenas, skunks, and cats.  Carnivores are late entries into the mammalian family tree.  Prior to their appearance, representatives of herbivorous, insectivorous and omnivorous mammals had existed for close to 100 million years.  But once these new specialists appeared, they quickly radiated out into numerous successful life forms.  All have four large canine teeth. Special adaptations for these predators include the carnassial teeth, located in the rear of the jaws that function like scissors to tear flesh and shear bone.

Although most of these members include berries, nuts, and fruits in their diet, these are the flesh-eating mammals.  Cats are the ultimate carnivores, while others like bears, foxes, skunks and raccoons are more omnivorous. Carnivores are far less abundant than rodents and lagomorphs, on which the carnivores predate. While meat is a much more concentrated source of energy than plant material, it is relatively hard to acquire.  Thus, carnivores have evolved a  large brain to handle the complex smell, hearing, and/or sight senses necessary to help secure their food source. 

Contrary to public perception, most carnivores do not have permanent homes.  Other than for natal purposes or for severe winter protection, few carnivores have nests that they use regularly.  More often, a nesting site is used once, or for a brief period, while a particular food source is exploited.  Most mammals routinely patrol their range, taking several weeks to complete a circuit, checking out all the potential prey sites along the way. 

Dogs and cats are specialized to walk up on their toes (digitigrade locomotion), while other carnivores, like bear, raccoon, and skunk, walk on the soles of their feet (plantigrade locomotion).  All male carnivores have a well-developed speculum (penis bone).   Many are important in the fur trade, although human interest in wearing furs has precipitously fallen over the past twenty years, with a resultant drop in harvested pelts.  

Carnivores are first known from the early Paleocene Epoch (65 million years ago). It now appears that the Carnivora evolved from the ancestral insectivores or from the same basal stock that gave rise to the Primates and Chiroptera.  More information on the evolution of carnivores can be found at Velvet Claw.

Worldwide, there are 8 families, 97 genera and 246 species of carnivores, of which six families and 20 species are represented in the eastern United States.  Carnivores are not native to Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and Antarctica.

Sixteen species are found in the Appalachian region. They range from the least weasel (one ounce) to the black bear (400+ pounds).  

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Family Canidae - Dogs, Wolves and Foxes

Canids include all dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, dingoes and jackals.   Canids all have elongated muzzles, long legs and bushy tails. Their long nose provides them with excellent olfactory senses necessary for scenting prey and "reading" scent posts of other animals. The presence of molars behind the scissor-like carnassial teeth allows the canids a more varied diet than the feline family (which, in the absence of the molars, must rely solely on carnivory). Members of the canid family have four toes on both front and rear feet.

Canids are the most cursorial (adapted for running) of the carnivores.  While foxes can stalk their prey, most canids rely on chasing down their prey.  In addition to their long legs, they have evolved a long muzzle with convoluted spiral bones which enables the long distance runner to conserve moisture and warm or cool the air before it reaches the lungs.  Such adaptations enabled the early canids to dominate the open grasslands, where they reached their zenith 20 million years ago with some 42 different genera. 

The larger wolves are known to hunt in packs of up to 30 members, enabling them to obtain prey much larger than themselves.   The smaller canids normally hunt in smaller groups or occasionally in pairs (coyotes), or as solitary predators (foxes).   They frequent home ranges that may include actively defended territories, and have evolved complex and varied social systems.  Canids are generally active year-round with females giving birth only once a year.   Males are generally larger than females in a given population.  Young are born altricial, requiring considerable maternal care.   

The red wolf (Canis rufus) is presumably no longer found in the wild. The last remaining red wolves were captured in eastern Texas in the 1970’s.  Red wolves had been reintroduced in the Great Smokies National Park in 1991, but for various reasons, were removed in 1998.  It has been successfully reintroduced, however, into the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, NC, in 1987, and three other southern coastal islands.  (These three islands serve as breeding areas, since they are too small to sustain a permanent population.)  As of 1997, there were about 50 red wolves at Alligator River, 30 at other sites, and 160 in captive-breeding facilities.

Since the red wolf is no longer a member of the Appalachian region fauna, it will not be included as a listed species.  However, information on the red wolf and the reintroduction efforts can be found at RED WOLF.

Recent DNA studies suggest that the red wolf is actually a hybrid between the gray wolf and coyote and, thus,  arguably should not be recognized as a separate species.  However, that view has been questioned based on other interpretation of genetic data that suggest the red wolf is a primitive animal that has been present in the Southeast US since the mid-Pleistocene.

The gray wolf (Canis lupus) has also been extirpated from its former range in the eastern United States, and thus will not be included.  Limited information on this species can be found at GRAY WOLF.  

The earliest domesticated dogs (Canis familiaris) date back to Idaho and Iraq, some 11,000 and 12,000 years ago, respectively.  It is currently believed that the origin of the domestic dog is derived from one of the small south Eurasian subspecies of gray wolf (C. lupus) and subsequently spread throughout the world in association with  people.  Today, there are approximately 400  breeds of domestic dog, from the smallest chihuahua to the Irish wolfhound.  The Australian dingo (C. f. dingo), is itself a feral subspecies of the domestic dog.  In fact, it is possible that some of these dingos were brought across the Bering Strait to North America some 3,000 - 4,000 years ago and persist today in the form of the  Carolina hunting dog.

There are an estimated 50 million owned dogs in the US, and many more lack owners.  In 1975, there were an estimated 80,000 - 100,000 dogs in Baltimore, MD, of which up to half were free-ranging, implicated in the spread of several diseases, and benefiting rats by overturning garbage cans.  There are 1 to 3 million reported attacks annually in the US, with 18 people killed by dogs in 1990 (8 by pit bulls).

This family is known from fossils going back to the late Eocene Epoch in North America and Europe, some 38 million years ago.  More information on the evolution of canids can be found at Velvet Claw.

Within the Canid family, there are 16 genera and 36 species worldwide (Nowak), with four genera with nine species known from North America (Jones).  

The canids are represented in this Appalachian Region by the coyote, the red and the gray fox, and the feral domesticated dog (not given a species account).

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COYOTE (Canis latrans) (dog; a barker)

ARTICLES

Appalachian Region Distribution: Coyotes are known to exist in every county in PA, MD, VA, WV, and NC.  They were first found in the Smokies in 1982. See remarks for more detail.  The first confirmed coyotes in the Shenandoah National Park were photographed in the winter of 2000/2001.
Continental Range: Although originally a western species, the coyote has been introduced throughout the eastern US and now is found in virtually all of North America.  Until the early 1900’s, the range extended only as far east as northern Wisconsin and central Texas.  Removal of the gray wolf in the east made room for the gradual move into the east by the coyote.  Three subspecies recognized in eastern US, with one in the Appalachian region.
Abundance: More common in the open land of the coastal plain and piedmont; uncommon in mountainous areas, although the largest concentrations in Virginia are in the mountainous southwest corner of the state; being populated by an expansion of coyotes from the west. General eastern population is increasing.
Population Density: Varied reports from 0.065 (1/16 sq mi) to 1 per square mile.  Nowak reports an average from .3 to .6 per square mile, up to 3 per square mile.
Size and Molt: Head and body 32 to 37 inches, 30-40 pounds. Males are slightly larger than females. (The eastern US population is about ten pounds bigger than the western subspecies, purportedly due to interbreeding with Canadian wolves.  The largest coyotes are found in the northeastern US, where the most interbreeding with the larger gray wolf has occurred.) One molt between late spring and autumn. (Unlike the typical two summer/winter coats associated with two molts, this is a different method of molting, with the loss of the longer winter hair in spring, and not replaced until the autumn regrowth.)
Mammae: Four pair. (Mammals of Virginia says ten)
Habitat: Prefers open range land and brushy, disturbed forest edges. Not common in mountainous areas.
Active Period: Chiefly crepuscular (with peak activity in the early evening), but is often out during the day, especially during the summer. Active year-round.
Diet: Rabbits and rodents make up most of their diet, but they can be quite omnivorous (opportunistic).  An Adirondack study of 1500 coyote scats found throughout the year revealed mammals in 78 %, fruit 21 %, insects 10 %, birds 3 %, and amphibians, reptiles and green grass.  Snowshoe rabbits were the most common mammal at 40% (mainly in winter).  Carrion is a significant part of their winter diet. Will cache food supplies. The ultimate flexible hunter, the coyote will hunt singly, in pairs, or in groups of six to eight, depending on the size of the available food supply. The larger the prey, the larger the number of predators.  Wilson notes that, while the killing of large prey is seldom seen by coyote packs, often packs will congregate around the carcasses of animals that died of other causes.  Since mated pairs cannot deter intruders from taking large prey, it may be the protection of the carrion that encourages the formation of packs.  Coyotes have been known to follow badgers, since badgers will often flush a ground squirrel out of a separate burrow not noticed by the badger.
Home Range:  3-30 square miles.  Ranges vary by geography, habitat, season, and sex (and author).  There is also large variations among individuals of the same population.  Home range is also influenced by social organization.  Typically, only pack members defend territories, while mated pairs and individuals do not.  One study showed packs will normally have smaller home ranges as a group (5.5 square miles) since their food base is dependant on defending ungulate carrion in winter, than singles or pairs (11.5 square miles).  Among individuals, male ranges generally are larger than females.  Rue reports 36 square miles for males and 6 square miles for females.  One Arkansas study found males averaging 8.1 - 16.2 square miles, and females averaging 3 - 3.9 square miles.  However, in a Mississippi and Alabama study, females had a home range of 16 square miles and males averaged 5 square miles.  A western Tennessee study found 12 square miles for males and 24 square miles for females.  Wilson notes ranges of up to 20 to 28 square miles, with no consistent sex differences.  A male's territory is large and may overlap several females and other males, while ranges of the female will normally not overlap other females.  In times of scarce food resources, territories will be temporarily abolished, although dominance is not.  
Social Structure: Very social (less than wolves), but also incredibly adaptable and behaviorally variable as a species.  Coyotes may live singly, in pairs, or in packs.  The available prey will in large part determine size of social unit (solitary in areas of rodents; packs of 3 to 7 in areas with only large ungulates).  Thus, as opposed to the western, open grassland populations, supporting large herbivores, it would be reasonable to assume most coyotes in the Appalachians would tend to be in pairs or singles.  A dominance hierarchy exists in the pack, with the older male and female forming the alpha pair.  The alpha pair will be the only mated pair within the pack.  A pack will normally contain the mated alpha pair, single (non-dispersing) individuals from previous season offspring, and the young of the current season.  Although some of the pairs bond for life (especially in areas of low densities), coyotes normally don’t mate for life, but may stay as a pair for several years. While the single pair is the basic unit, solitary individuals and packs may all exist in the same geographic area and often feed and den together.  Both parents and (often) siblings from an earlier year care for the young.  Dispersal normally occurs in the first autumn and early winter.   Social units may change over the season as available prey changes.  Coyotes tend to be more social in winter when carrion is a more significant food source.  Others suggest coyote groups do not necessarily form for taking down large prey, rather, cooperative group defense (protection of the carrion from other packs) appears to be the major selective force favoring increased sociality.  (If pack size was determined by prey capture need, the size of the pack should stabilize at the point of maximum meat yield per capita.  However, packs are usually found to be larger than simple efficiency should dictate – i.e., there are more pack members than necessary to make the kill.)   Thus, the correlation between pack size and prey size may be a result of pack size, rather than a cause of it.  Clearly, there are many factors involved with pack size.  For example, there is evidence that as food resources become limiting, birth rates decline as the pack size increases.  Other factors affecting pack size include range quality.  An increase in pack size can be the result of delayed juvenile dispersal.  This may occur when a habitat is saturated and prospects for establishing a new territory are slight, requiring the dispersing youngster to travel a long, hazardous journey away from its pack.  Additionally, as competing packs become more an issue, the dispersal of juvenile will also be limited (due to fear of being killed!).  Both these two issues of habitat saturation and competition among packs may explain larger packs than necessary (most efficient) in the wild.
Life Cycle: A late winter mating (February or March – Wilson says early to mid winter) results in one litter with an average of six young per litter per year (the largest litter recorded is 19), born in late April to early May.  Unlike domestic dogs that come into heat twice a year, coyotes are monestrous; breeding only once a year, during the variable period of estrus, or heat (Nowak reports a range for estrus from 4 - 15 days with 10 being the average; Rue reports a 20-21 day heat period). Usually, about 60 – 90% of adult females and 0 – 70% of female yearlings produce litters (primarily dependent on food supply and social structure).  Gestation period of 63 days.  Some coyotes mate for life, some for just a season, most for several years (not too much unlike humans).  The male (as well as last year's siblings and/or other subdominant males) may provide the food to the female during the first 3 to 4 weeks, while the kits are non-mobile.  (With domestic male dog-female coyote pairs, the domestic males' lack of feeding of the female normally dooms most coydog litters.  See remarks below.)  Parental care is often assisted by others of the pack during the first season (including defending the group’s territory).  Coyote pups have round iris, unlike the vertical slits of the red and gray fox kits. The den is abandoned when the whelps are weaned at five to seven weeks of age (Mammals of Virginia says pups aren’t completely weaned until they are more than three months old.) The family stays together until fall, when the juveniles normally disperse.  Males tend to disperse further from the birthing site than females (10-30 miles for females and 50+ miles for males).  Occasionally, last years' siblings will over-winter with the parents, helping to raise the young the next season.   Most young require two years to reach sexual maturity, however, a few reach maturity in one year, depending on winter severity and food resources. (Wilson says 9 to 10 months is usual). Dispersing individuals may join other packs for varying amounts of time or may remain as transients.  Life span is about 8 - 14 years, while individuals less than one year of age tend to have a mortality rate of 68%.  The record was a coyote in the Washington Zoo, living to 18 1/2 years.
Dens/Nest: Other than for breeding, coyotes do not den up.  They will sleep anywhere a concealed site can be found. For breeding, coyotes make two or more burrows ten to thirty feet long into banks or hills to a den measuring a foot wide and two feet high, and three feet below the surface. Tunnels may be  connected by numerous interconnecting tunnels.  Often, abandoned woodchuck, skunk, or fox burrows are used.  A mated pair will utilize the same den year after year.   Dens can be identified by prey remains  and flattened vegetation around the entrance.  No nest material or lining is used in the nest chamber. 
Tracks: Tracks are 2 ¼ wide to 2 ¾ long and oval; four toes and claws. Straddle is about 6", with stride being 14 to 16" (24" when trotting), while a small dog is more like 10 to 12". Coyotes tend to "perfect step" more than dogs (rear foot on top of front step - dogs overlap more), with less foot drag.  Dogs also tend to wander more than coyotes, who, along with foxes, are known to walk in straight lines.  The distance between the tracks of a coyote is about 6", while the fox is more like 3 - 4".
Scat: Coyote and fox scats are very similar (lots of hair), with coyote being a little larger. Both have tapered ends, the coyote being 2 to 5" long and ¾" – 1” diameter. (Scat of this diameter is probably coyote.)  Often found on rocks or other prominent spots.  Relatively, fox scat diameter is 5/8”, bobcat is 6/8”, and coyote is 7/8”.

Remarks: Coyotes are now believed to be found in every county of the five states in this Appalachian study area.  As many as 4,000 coyotes were harvested in Virginia in 2000, and over 6,000 in Pennsylvania in 2000.  Four SW Virginia counties still offer $50 bounties and each county has a budget of $1500 - $2500 per year; so this comes up to about 160 coyotes.  However, this is changing as counties realize the futility of bounties to control livestock damage.  Instead, Livestock coops, state and federal agencies are forming joint programs to better address specific cases of livestock damages.  The VIRGINIA PROGRAM can be viewed here.  A similar program is on-going in West Virginia.

Similar to a slightly built German shepherd, this carnivore has a busy tail tipped in black. Large variations in pelage exists from nearly all black to nearly all white phases (approximately 25% of the coyotes in Virginia are mostly black).

Coyotes are the most vocal of all North American wild mammals.  The coyotes are known for a wide range of vocalizations. Howls are most prevalent at night during the mating period. The eastern population doesn't seem to bark as much as western populations, but their calls are becoming more prevalent.  When running, coyotes distinguish themselves by holding their tail between their legs. All other canids run with their tail either parallel (wolves) or curled over the back (domestic dogs). A good swimmer.

Coyotes are adept at developing new foraging strategies.  In what's known as a "hunting partnership", they are known to travel with badgers on hunting voyages.  Often the keen smell of the coyote will locate a burrowing rodent.  While the badger digs furiously at one opening, the coyote will station itself at another opening, ready to catch an escaping prey. Nowak comments that they both share in the proceeds, but I seriously doubt they share the same critter.  Coyotes also often work in pairs; one approaching conspicuously to attract the attention of the prey, while the other stalks it from behind. 

Coyotes readily breed with domestic dogs and bear fertile offspring (coydogs), who also can breed with either dogs or coyotes. While all members of the Canis genus can (and do) interbreed (dogs, wolves, and coyotes), due to the size difference, male wolves are known to breed with female coyotes or dogs, but not typically the other way around.  Before the advent of Man, geographic isolating mechanisms kept the various species from interbreeding.  With coyotes coming into heat only once a year in late winter, and dogs twice a year, overlapping breeding periods are not common (male coyotes are only able to breed when females are in estrus – males can only produce viable sperm for a period of 3 to 4 months).  With male dogs capable of mating year-round, most coydogs are from male dogs and female coyotes.  Since male coyotes help in pup-rearing, while male dogs do not, this lessens the likelihood of successful coydog raising.  Additionally, estrus in coydogs comes especially early, producing young in January or February; a time unfavorable for survival.  For these reasons, the amount of domestic dog genes in coyote bloodline is probably extremely low.  

When mating, the male mounts the female in the traditional manner, and then the male steps over the female's back and the couple remain locked at 180° for a period of up to 25 minutes.

Coyote and fox pups look alike, thus adding to eastern populations of coyotes, when received coyotes are released, mistaken by the original takers as fox pups. 

Coyotes are intolerant of foxes and bobcats, and will increase in population at their expense.  

In 1976-77, nearly 400,000 coyotes were taken in the lower 48 states.

The name coyote comes from the Aztec word coyotl, meaning barking dog.  It should be pronounced “ky-o-tee”, not “ky-ote”.

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RED FOX (Vulpes vulpes) (fox; fox)

ARTICLES

Appalachian Region Distribution: Throughout.
Continental Range: Throughout Canada and US., with the exception of the Rockies.   It is, in fact, the most widely distributed carnivore in the world, occurring in North America, Asia, Europe, and northern Africa (and now, introduced to Australia).  Two subspecies recognized in the eastern US, with only one in the Appalachian region.
Abundance: Common.
Population Density: 2 -3/square mile.
Size and Molt: Head and body 22 to 25 inches, 8 - 12 pounds, (averaging 9 1/2 pounds, with the largest male weighing 16 pounds 1 ounce, shot at Conneaut Lake, PA).  One fall molt (with additional winter underfur).
Mammae: Four pair.
Habitat: Few animals occupy such a diverse range of habitats as the red fox.  Deciduous successional woodlands with some open land are ideal habitat.  They select areas of greatest diversity and use edges heavily.  Dense forests are avoided, except occasionally in winter.
Active Period: In summer, mainly nocturnal, but crepuscular to a degree (dawn and dusk).  In winter, more diurnal, to fit the diurnal nature of the voles; their main winter food.  Red fox will cover up to 5 miles a night moving on their circuitous route around their home range. 
Diet: Omnivorous, including rabbits, mice, insects, berries, and birds.  Red foxes are solitary hunters, specializing on small mammals.  Like weasels, red foxes (and other canids) cache what they can’t eat on the spot.  Meadow mice and field mice in the spring/summer, insects and fruits in the summer/fall, and rodents (specifically meadow voles) and rabbits in the winter seem to be most common. They will also eat carrion.  Unlike other canids, who chase down their prey after approaching it in the open, red foxes stalk their prey, then put on a burst of speed, much like a felid.  Daily consumption is 1-2 pounds a day.
Home Range: About one square mile, or 640 acres, with a range from  250 to 1500 acres.  Can be from 25 to 100 acres in suburbia to 5,000 in farmland and 8,000 in the Arctic.  Home ranges have been observed to be twice as long as wide.  Ranges are normally larger in winter, determined by food resources.  Red foxes are apparently territorial, with little overlap of home ranges.  A home range is typically occupied by an adult male, one or two adult females, and their young.  Occasionally two females have litters in the same den.  
Social Structure: Red fox normally mate for life, the male supplying all the food for the vixen (sometimes assisted by last years' kits) and protecting the territory when she is nursing the kits.  However, solitary as a hunter, and quite territorial.   A pecking order is noted among males with overlapping ranges, with the dominant male excluding other males during the breeding season.   Combatants will rise on their hind feet, putting their forefeet on the shoulders of the opponent, with the first to back off being the loser.   This “dancing” is also seen in foreplay between a male and female, often over a week or two prior to actual mating.  After mating, the male will leave until the female gives birth.  At this time, the male normally returns, supplying food for the vixen and pups. Often, unbred females, such as last years'  female pups, will assist in bringing food to the young.  In areas with multiply dens, males may mate with different females and not provide parental care.  Females are also known to mate with different males before settling down with one male.  The family (including the parents) will disperse by late summer.  Communal denning is known to occur in some areas.
Life Cycle: One litter per year, averaging five per litter (the largest litter being 17 pups). In the Appalachian study area, breeding begins as early as late December, peaking in January and early February (later to the north).  Males produce viable sperm only between the middle of December through February.  monestrous, with an estrus of 1 to 6 days (Rue says 3 weeks).  Gestation period of 51 days, with most birthing taking place in March.  For the first week, the female stays with the pups and is fed by the male.  Pups are weaned at eight weeks (now called kits) and leave the family at six months (mid-September or early October).  Parents also separate for the winter at this time.  Males disperse before females and travel much farther from the birthing site than females.  Wilson reports a midwest study finding males dispersing 18 miles and females 4.8 miles (another was 24 miles and 6 miles, respectively).  Young are sexually mature by their first winter.  Where density is low and mortality high, 80 – 90% of the yearling vixens give birth.  Where population turnover is low, as many as 20% of all vixens fail to produce litters.  As is the case with a number of mammals, the number of young per litter increases with age for most of the adult life, then decreases.  Even among the pups, a dominance hierarchy is quickly established, with the largest (male or female) getting the majority of food while the runts usually starve.  Life span is three to four years, with a potential span of 12 years.  The record is 16 years in captivity.
Dens/Nest: Two types of dens are used.  Multiple short dens (5’ to 10’ length) are used for winter protection and defense within the red foxes home range.  Mammals of PA, Mammals of VA, and Rue report that, unlike the gray fox, the red fox has no regular winter den and sleeps in the open beneath brush of downed timber.  More extensive dens are used in early spring for raising the young.  Nesting dens are three feet wide, usually have at least two entrances (9 to 12" in diameter),  3 to 9 feet below the surface, at the end of 20 to 40 foot burrows, preferably on the side of a slope.  One den had 19 entrances.  Red foxes may make their own burrows and dens, but also utilize abandoned burrows of woodchucks or their own former den, adding tunnels and chambers with each new generation.  If woodchucks still inhabit a burrow, fresh soil will be found around the main opening, whereas, red fox will not deposit soil at the entrance and will more likely have animal remains around the den.  NAS and Rue says dirt pulled out of the burrow is spread around the entrance in an apron about 2 to 3 times larger than that of a woodchuck.  Red fox and woodchucks are known to occupy the same burrow system.  Communal red fox dens have been observed (11% of all dens in one Wisconsin study).  Dens  may be used for a number of years by a succession of generations.    
Tracks: Front tracks are 1 3/4 inches long by 2 inches wide, hind track slightly smaller, with five toes on the forefeet (only four show) and four on the hind feet with non-retractable claws.  Fox tracks are often straighter and perfect-stepped (see Coyote above) than the more wandering dog. Foxes tend to walk in straight lines, from cover to cover.  Red fox are known to frequent the same route, producing well-worn trails.  Straddle is 3 to 4". Stride is at least a foot, while a domestic cat is less than a foot.   Red fox are known to backtrack in its own footsteps for some distance, then leap away to one side and make off in a new direction. 
Scat: Fox and coyote scat are similar with tapered ends. Fox scat is 2 to 4" long and ½" – 5/8” in diameter (summer scat is often shorter and not tapered due to the insect and berry diet).  Feces often left standing on end.  Scats less than 7/16" in diameter are probably fox.  Relatively, fox scat diameter is 5/8”, bobcat is 6/8”, and coyote is 7/8”.

Remarks: Whether the red fox was ever indigenous to North America is subject to much study and debate.  Churcher (1959) reported that the red fox may have been native north of latitude 40, which runs roughly from northern California through Denver and Philadelphia.  Forsyth and Shedd mentions fossil skeletons have been found that predate European settlement.  Eight pair of red foxes were reportedly introduced to Queen Annes County, Maryland from Liverpool shortly after 1650, spreading rapidly, reaching Virginia in 1679.  Bartram noted that it was first seen in Montgomery County, MD between 1798 and 1802.  Audubon and Bachman (1851) noted that the red fox was not known south of Pennsylvania in historic records, but progressively was noted expanding south through the colonial period.  Current consensus is that the red fox of the middle Atlantic states is a descendant of the English fox with interbreeding from the northern native American red fox.

It has been suggested that the range of more northern red foxes contracts northward during warm periods (such as 5000 – 2000 BC) at the same time that the more southern gray fox ranges more to the north.  The same shift in range may have occurred during another warm period of 1000 to 1300 AD.  Gray foxes apparently disappeared in New England, as did the red fox, until this past century. 

In many respects, the red fox is more like a member of the feline family than the canid family.  For example, the red fox is a solitary hunter that often hunts by stalking and short bursts of speed rather than long chases.  They are also known to “play” with their prey before eating it, like a cat.  The red fox’s eyes have vertical pupils that can narrow to a slit and a reflective membrane at the back of the eye causing light to pass over the retina twice, enabling the fox cat-like excellent seeing abilities in both extremes of light conditions.  Red foxes also have partially retractable claws, aiding it in stalking and pinning down its prey.  Unlike a dog that will vigorously shake its prey from side to side, the red fox will simply bear down with its clenched teeth, much like a cat.  Red foxes have longer whiskers than dogs.  Finally, red foxes threat display towards other foxes is very much cat-like, with its hair standing up, arching its back and turning broadside to prance towards its protagonist.   

The hearing of red fox differs from most mammals in that it is tuned to lower frequencies that enable it to pick up the underground digging and gnawing of it's prey species.

The white-tipped tail differentiates this from the gray fox with a black-tipped tail.  Pelage color is highly variable, although most are a reddish yellow or tawny red. From 1900 to 1920 in North America, catching and raising wild foxes developed into a major industry with farms employing up to 400 workers and paying up to $1,000 for a choice animal.  Three color phases are recognized.  “Cross” is a mixed gray and yellow, with a dark line down the back and a second crossing band across the shoulders.  “Silver” is a melanistic coat frosted with white.  “Black” is the melanistic coat.  Such color phases may occur in the same litter with normal red coats.  The "silver fox" color phase of the northern range is valued by fur dealers and raised on farms. Winter colors are more vivid than the more subdued summer pelage.  Winter fur length is longer than summer.  

Red foxes are used in hunts over the gray due to their increased speed, endurance and stamina (grays tend to escape to treetops too quickly). Red fox are good swimmers and can run up to 32 mph.  During the mating period of mid-winter, the urine gets a musky, skunky odor which can be noticed at some distance by hikers. 

As coyote populations increase, there will be a corresponding decline in the red fox population.  However, foxes, who tolerate human habitation better than coyotes, will tend to move in to more suburban areas.

The red fox is a principal vector and victim of rabies in the Northern Hemisphere.  Recent experiments dropping medicated meatballs from airplanes into affected areas has proven to effectively control rabies.  

In the 1976-77 season, 421,705 red foxes were trapped in the US and Canada, and rose to over 500,000 in the early 80's.

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COMMON GRAY FOX (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) (tailed, dog; gray, silver)

Appalachian Region Distribution: Throughout.
Continental Range: Most of the continental US with the exception of the Great Plains and the Pacific NW.   Four subspecies recognized in eastern US, with only one found in this Appalachian region.  (U. cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus).
Abundance: Common.
Population Density: 3-10/square mile.  (W/H and Wilson says 1/2 - 1/square mile, Nowak reports a range from 0.6 to 16 per square mile.)
Size and Molt: Head and body 24 inches, 9-11 pounds, with the largest recorded at 19 pounds. Males weigh 1 to 2 pounds more than females.  One molt.
Mammae: Six functional mammae.
Habitat: Prefers wooded forests (more so than red foxes), although very adaptable to different environments, including rural to semi-developed suburban areas. Prefers habitat near water.
Active Period: Crepuscular to nocturnal.   More nocturnal than the red fox. 
Diet: The most omnivorous of the canids.  Percentage of plant versus animal seems to be a function of habitat rather than preference.  Rabbits and small rodents often make up a majority of their diet, especially in winter.  In late summer and fall, persimmons, grapes, acorns, apples, grasses and corn make up a third of its diet. Grasshoppers and crickets may be particularly important in the fall.  Eats more berries and birds than the red fox. Other studies show the gray fox having more vegetable in their diet than red fox.  Caches excess food.
Home Range: 0.3 to 2 square miles for a family (210 - 1280 acres).  Similar figures reported for individuals.  Nowak reports about 1/2 to 3 square miles.  Chapman and Feldhamer report 0.3 to 0.73 square miles ( 187 acres to 462 acres).  Unmated foxes may overlap family range.  Chapman and Feldhamer reports two studies that both indicate home ranges overlap.  Home range is larger in winter.  
Social Structure: Are normally monogamous, paired for life, although occasionally polygamous.   The family stays together for the season, with both participating in gathering food for the young, although NAS says the male will not den with the family.
Life Cycle: One litter a year with an average of four (1-7) born from early April to May.  Most breeding takes place from late February to mid-March (Nowak says up to late May in New York).  Roughly, it can be stated that red foxes give birth a month earlier than gray foxes (March versus April).  Females are monestrous, with a gestation period of 55 days (reports of 53 to 63 days).  After the first four to six weeks, the male is allowed to assist in child rearing by providing food (Rue says male provides food to the female during this period). Young are weaned in eight to ten weeks, and on their own by fall.  The family stays together for the summer, then disperses in the fall or late winter.  Some of the pups will breed in the coming spring, others not until their second year.  Life span of eight to ten years.  (W/H says most die before the age of two, although captives have lived 14-15 years.)
Dens/Nest: Dens are normally used only for winter protection (unlike the red fox) and for the spring reproductive season.  Den sites are reused year after year by a mated pair.  Little vegetation or no nesting materials are used.  Often uses more than one summer den.  Dens are in dense brush near water (not open fields, like red fox). Gray foxes are less particular about their sites than red foxes.  Such sites can include high up in hollow trees, hollow logs, stumps, rock outcrops, slab, scrap and brush piles. Will use ground hog holes and, as a last resort, will make it’s own burrows. Have even been found in the same den as woodchucks.  Unlike the red fox, gray fox dens usually only have one entrance, and never more than two. 
Tracks: Front length and width is 1 5/8 x 1 3/8"; rear length and width is 1 1/2 x 1 1/4", with a straddle of 3 3/4" and a slow stride of 8 - 12".  Four toes show in the tracks, since the fifth toe (the dewclaw) on the front foot does not register.  Gray foxes have larger toe pads on smaller feet than red foxes.  
Scat: Generally 2 ½" by ½", with tapered ends, not twisted.  Usually not segmented.

Remarks: There are only two species in this genus, both found in North America.  

The only canine that can climb trees. It will take to the trees when pursued.  More secretive and shy than the red fox.   The gray fox is unique among North American foxes in that it has stiff pelage instead of soft fur.  Body coat is a grizzly, or "salt and pepper" gray with a long, bushy tail having a distinct black stripe on it’s dorsal side and black tail tip.  A black patch can be found on the top of the muzzle and on the chin. The gray fox has reddish-tawny sides and flanks, but not the top dorsal side, like the red fox.  Gray foxes are not used for hunting since they will hole up or climb a tree in little time.  Foxes may contract either the aggressive "street" rabies or the non-aggressive "dumb" rabies (which is suspected to be the type affecting bats).  

Coyotes seem to outcompete gray foxes in overlapping ranges.  Between the red and gray, the gray fox seems to be the aggressor and tends to force the red fox out of its territory.

Gray foxes make better pets when raised from pups than red foxes.  

It is said that they are infrequently hit by cars due to their speed, agility, but I’ve seen at least ten road kills along Rt 50 between Annapolis and D.C. in the 1990's.  Specifically, all within a few mile section centered around the Route 424 Davidsonville exit.  It is also noted that gray fox don’t tend to shy away from hunters with spotlights.  Since that time, the number of road kills observed has basically stopped.  Perhaps the population has moved.

In the 1976-77 season, 225,277 gray foxes were taken in the US.

27,000 gray foxes were "harvested" in PA in 1983, with a record 66,975 trapped or hunted in 1984.    The record low was 23,102 in 1988.  32,922 were harvested in 1998.  The northcentral portion typically yields the largest numbers (10,524 in 1998).

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